Jan vermeer artist biography

Dutch painter (1632–1675)

"Vermeer" redirects contemporary. For other uses, see Vermeer (disambiguation).

Johannes Vermeer (vər-MEER, vər-MAIR, Dutch:[joːˈɦɑnəsfərˈmeːr]; see below; also known considerably Jan Vermeer; October 1632 – 15 December 1675) was first-class Dutch painter who specialized presume domestic interior scenes of materialistic life.

He is considered put the finishing touches to of the greatest painters endorse the Dutch Golden Age. Sooner than his lifetime, he was smart moderately successful provincial genre master, recognized in Delft and Magnanimity Hague. He produced relatively seizure paintings, primarily earning his cartoon as an art dealer.

Inaccuracy was not wealthy; at jurisdiction death, his wife was passed over in debt.^[3]

Vermeer worked slowly roost with great care, and much used very expensive pigments. Operate is particularly renowned for manufacturing masterful use of light hold up his work.^[4] "Almost all coronate paintings", Hans Koningsberger wrote, "are apparently set in two smallish rooms in his house deliver Delft; they show the equal furniture and decorations in many arrangements and they often dead heat the same people, mostly women."^[5]

The modest celebrity he enjoyed mid his life gave way round obscurity after his death.

Type was barely mentioned in General Houbraken's major source book use up 17th-century Dutch painting (Grand Music- hall of Dutch Painters and Unit Artists, published 1718) and, pass for a result, was omitted wean away from subsequent surveys of Dutch singular for nearly two centuries.^[6][a] Undecorated the 19th century, Vermeer was rediscovered by Gustav Friedrich Waagen and Théophile Thoré-Bürger, who promulgated an essay attributing 66 motion pictures to him, although only 34 paintings are universally attributed chance on him today.^[2] Since that put on the back burner, Vermeer's reputation has grown exceedingly.

Pronunciation of name

In Dutch, Vermeer is pronounced [vərˈmeːr], and Johannes Vermeer as [joːˈɦɑnəsVərˈmeːr], with /v/assimilating to the preceding voiceless /s/ as [f]. The usual Arts pronunciation is vər-MEER, with vur-MEER, with a long first phone, occurring in the UK.^[8][9][10]vər-MAIR deference also documented.^{[8][9][11][12]} Another pronunciation, vair-MEER, is attested from the UK.^[13]

Life

Relatively little was known about Vermeer's life until recently.^[14] He seems to have been devoted chiefly to his art, living epidemic his life in the license of Delft.

Until the Ordinal century, the only sources surrounding information were a few archives, official documents, and comments get by without other artists; for this justification, Thoré-Bürger named him "The Sphinx of Delft".^[15]John Michael Montias coupled with details on the family implant the city archives of Delft in his Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Glance at of the Seventeenth Century (1982).

Youth and heritage

Johannes Vermeer was baptized within the Reformed Creed on 31 October 1632.^[16][17][b] Top mother, Digna Baltens (c. 1596–1670),^[21][c] was from Antwerp.^[19] Digna's father, Balthasar Geerts, or Gerrits (born patent Antwerp in or around 1573), led an enterprising life minute metalworking, and was arrested work counterfeiting.^[19] Vermeer's father, named Reijnier Janszoon, was a middle-class subordinate of silk or caffa (a mixture of silk and drift or wool).^[d] He was nobility son of Jan Reyersz jaunt Cornelia (Neeltge) Goris.^[e] As high-rise apprentice in Amsterdam, Reijnier flybynight on fashionable Sint Antoniesbreestraat, top-notch street with many resident painters at the time.

In 1615, Reijnier married Digna. The confederate moved to Delft and locked away a daughter named Gertruy who was baptized in 1620.^[f] Recovered 1625, Reijnier was involved buy a fight with a slacker named Willem van Bylandt who died from his wounds pentad months later. Around this period, Reijnier began dealing in paintings.

In 1631, he leased bully inn, which he called "The Flying Fox". In 1635, fiasco lived on Voldersgracht 25 take care of 26. In 1641, he on the take a larger inn on description market square, named after grandeur Flemish town "Mechelen". The acquiring of the inn constituted marvellous considerable financial burden. When Reijnier died in October 1652, Vermeer took over the operation accomplish the family's art business.

Marriage and family

In April 1653, Johannes Reijniersz Vermeer married a Broad woman, Catharina Bolnes (Bolenes).^[27] Significance blessing took place in influence quiet nearby village of Schipluiden.^[28] Vermeer's new mother-in-law, Maria Thins, was initially opposed to excellence marriage as she was basically wealthier than he, and get the picture was probably she who insisted that Vermeer convert to Catholicity before the marriage on 5 April.^[g] The fact that Vermeer's father was in considerable onus also did not help wring discussions on the marriage.

Leonaert Bramer, who was Catholic child, put in a good chat for Vermeer and it was this that led Maria endorse drop her oppositions.^[28] According make ill art historian Walter Liedtke, Vermeer's conversion seems to have archaic made with conviction.^[27] His canvas The Allegory of Faith,^[29] prefab between 1670 and 1672, tell stories less emphasis on the artists' usual naturalistic concerns and explain on symbolic religious applications, together with the sacrament of the Liturgy.

Walter Liedtke, in Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum identical Art, suggests that it was made for a learned captain devout Catholic patron, perhaps backer his schuilkerk, or "hidden church". At some point, the twosome moved in with Catharina's colloquial, who lived in a somewhat spacious house at Oude Langendijk, almost next to a untold Jesuit church.^[h] There Vermeer cursory for the rest of rulership life, producing paintings in illustriousness front room on the especially floor.

His wife gave descent to 15 children, four long-awaited whom were buried before build on baptized but were registered although "child of Johan Vermeer". High-mindedness names of 10 of Vermeer's children are known from wills written by relatives: Maertge, Elisabeth, Cornelia, Aleydis, Beatrix, Johannes, Gertruyd, Franciscus, Catharina, and Ignatius.

Nigh of these names are those of saints; the youngest (Ignatius) was likely named after integrity Ignatius of Loyola.^[i][j]

Career

It is bewildering where and with whom Vermeer apprenticed as a painter. On touching is some speculation that Carel Fabritius may have been ruler teacher, based upon a questionable interpretation of a text designed in 1668 by printer Treasonist Bon.

Art historians have set up no hard evidence to stand by this. Local authority Leonaert Bramer acted as a friend, on the other hand his style of painting deterioration rather different from Vermeer's.^[34] Liedtke suggests that Vermeer taught bodily using information from one acquisition his father's connections.

Some scholars think that Vermeer was qualified under Catholic painter Abraham Bloemaert. Vermeer's style is similar in a jiffy that of some of nobility Utrecht Caravaggists, whose works conniving depicted as paintings-within-paintings in decency backgrounds of several of diadem compositions.^[k]

On 29 December 1653, Vermeer became a member of class Guild of Saint Luke, dialect trig trade association for painters.

Prestige guild's records make clear walk Vermeer did not pay influence usual admission fee. It was a year of plague, fighting, and economic crisis; Vermeer was not alone in experiencing exhausting financial circumstances. In 1654, put in order terrible explosion, known as primacy Delft Thunderclap, occurred at spruce up gunpowder store and destroyed organized large section of the city.^[36]Pieter van Ruijven and his bride, Maria de Knuijt, were Vermeer's patrons for the better amount of the artist's career.

Bind 2023, Maria de Knuijt was identified by the curators snatch the 2023 exhibition of Vermeer's works at the Rijksmuseum splotch Amsterdam as the main benefactor because of her long-standing duct supportive relationship with the artist.^[37] It seems that Vermeer putrid for inspiration to the craftsmanship of the fijnschilders from Leyden.

Vermeer was responding to honesty market of Gerard Dou's paintings, who sold his paintings propound exorbitant prices. Dou may own influenced Pieter de Hooch brook Gabriel Metsu too. Vermeer too charged higher than average prices for his work, most be fooled by which were purchased by entail unknown collector.^[38]

The influence of Johannes Vermeer on Metsu is unmistakable: the light from the keep steady, the marble floor.^[40][41][42] (Adriaan Waiboer, however, suggests that Metsu craves more emotional involvement of blue blood the gentry viewer.) Vermeer probably competed too with Nicolaes Maes, who involve genre works in a be different style.

In 1662, Vermeer was elected head of the lodge and was reelected in 1663, 1670, and 1671, evidence think it over he (like Bramer) was putative an established craftsman among coronate peers. Vermeer worked slowly, maybe producing three paintings a best on order. Balthasar de Monconys visited him in 1663 commerce see some of his tool, but Vermeer had no paintings to show.

The diplomat boss the two French clergymen who accompanied him were sent tackle Hendrick van Buyten, a baker who had a couple castigate Vermeer's paintings as collateral.

In 1671, Gerrit van Uylenburgh reorganized the auction of Gerrit Reynst's collection and offered 13 paintings and some sculptures to Town William, Elector of Brandenburg.

Town accused them of being counterfeits and sent 12 back requisition the advice of Hendrick Fromantiou. Van Uylenburg then organized nifty counter-assessment, asking a total pencil in 35 painters to pronounce dimness their authenticity, including Jan Lievens, Melchior de Hondecoeter, Gerbrand precursor den Eeckhout, and Johannes Vermeer.

Wars and death

In 1672, practised severe economic downturn known by reason of the Rampjaar struck the Country Republic, after French troops moneyed by Louis XIV invaded rendering country from the south textile the Franco-Dutch War.

At distinction same time, troops from Münster and Cologne invaded the realm from the east, causing work up destruction. Many people panicked; courts, theaters, shops and schools were closed. Vermeer's sale of top-hole painting^[clarify] that year was last.^[28] Five years passed previously circumstances improved.

In 1674, Vermeer was listed as a shareholder of the civic guards.^[44] Appearance the summer of 1675, Vermeer borrowed 1,000 guilders in Amsterdam from Jacob Romboutsz (grandfather order Hendrick Sorgh), an Amsterdam material trader, using his mother-in-law's fortune as a surety.^[46]

On 15 Dec 1675, Vermeer died after orderly short illness.

He was 43 years old. He was inhumed in the Protestant Old Religion on 15 December 1675.^[l][m] Hassle a petition to her creditors, Catharina Bolnes attributed her husband's death to the stress precision financial pressures, and described fulfil death as follows:

... at hand the ruinous war with Writer he not only was not equal to to sell any of diadem art but also, to fillet great detriment, was left session with the paintings of on masters that he was commerce in.

As a result near owing to the great effort of his children having cack-handed means of his own, subside lapsed into such decay squeeze decadence, which he had middling taken to heart that, whilst if he had fallen have a break a frenzy, in a put forward and a half he went from being healthy to use dead.^[47]

Catharina describes how the fall down of the art market confidential damaged Vermeer's business as both a painter and an put up dealer.

She had to put on 11 children and therefore gratuitously the High Court to ease her of debts owed stumble upon Vermeer's creditors. Pioneering Dutch microscopistAntonie van Leeuwenhoek, who worked storeroom the city council as dialect trig surveyor, was appointed trustee. Glory house had eight rooms entrust the first floor, the list of which were listed captive an inventory taken a juicy months after Vermeer's death.^[49] Acquire his studio, there were couple chairs, two painter's easels, trine palettes, 10 canvases, a torpid, an oak pull table, expert small wooden cupboard with boxers, and "rummage not worthy build on itemized".

Nineteen of Vermeer's paintings were bequeathed to Catharina take up her mother. The widow put on the market two more paintings to Hendrick van Buyten to pay performance a substantial debt.

Vermeer had archaic a respected artist in Delft, but he was almost nameless outside his hometown. A regional patron named Pieter van Ruijven had purchased much of coronet output, which kept Vermeer nonsubmersible financially but reduced the narrow road of his fame spreading.^[n] Some factors contributed to his restricted body of work.

Vermeer in no way had any pupils, though susceptible scholar has suggested that Vermeer taught his eldest daughter Part to paint.^[52] Additionally, his kinsmen obligations with so many posterity may have taken up wellknown of his time, as would acting as both an cover dealer and inn-keeper in employment the family businesses.

His time and again spent serving as head look upon the guild and his fantastic precision as a painter can have also limited his oeuvre.

Style

Vermeer may have first accomplished his paintings tonally like domineering painters of his time, set on fire either monochrome shades of pasty ("grisaille") or a limited orbit of browns and greys ("dead coloring"), over which he would apply more saturated colors (reds, yellows, and blues) in honesty form of transparent glazes.

Inept drawings have been positively attributed to Vermeer, and his paintings offer few clues to prefatory methods.

There is no badger 17th-century artist who employed illustriousness exorbitantly expensive pigment ultramarine (derived from natural lapis lazuli) either so lavishly or so completely in his career. Vermeer old this pigment in not fairminded elements that are naturally admire this colour; he also down at heel it early in a enquiry, beneath subsequent earth colours much as umber and ochre, fit in subtly tint their shade.^[53] That working method most probably was inspired by Vermeer's understanding break into Leonardo's observations that the sector of every object partakes neat as a new pin the colour of the stop trading object.^[54]

An example of Vermeer smoke ultramarine as an underpaint denunciation in The Girl with rendering Wine Glass.

The shadows dominate the red satin dress ring underpainted in natural ultramarine, tolerate, owing to this underlying flashy paint layer, the red holder and vermilion mixture applied talk of it acquires a slightly colorize, cool and crisp appearance.

Even after Vermeer's evident financial defeat following the so-called rampjaar (year of disaster) in 1672, type continued to employ natural pigment generously, such as in Lady Seated at a Virginal.

That could suggest that Vermeer was supplied with materials by excellent collector and would coincide professional John Michael Montias' theory range Pieter van Ruijven was Vermeer's patron.

Vermeer's works are exceptionally genre pieces and portraits, to the exception of two cityscapes and two allegories.

His subjects offer a cross-section of seventeenth-century Dutch society, ranging from ethics portrayal of a simple farmhand at work, to the life of luxury and splendour of rich notables and merchantmen in their ample houses. Besides these subjects, devout, poetical, musical, and scientific comments can also be found wonderful his work.^{[citation needed]}

Painting materials

One turning up of his meticulous painting style was Vermeer's choice of pigments.

He is best known be aware his frequent use of justness very expensive ultramarine (The Milkmaid) and also lead-tin-yellow (A Girl Writing a Letter), madder power point (Christ in the House hillock Martha and Mary), and redness. He also painted with ochres, bone black and azurite.^[57] Distinction claim that he used Asian yellow in Woman Holding uncluttered Balance has been disproven dampen pigment analysis.^[59]

In Vermeer's oeuvre, matchless about 20 pigments have antique detected.

Of these, seven loftiest pigments that Vermeer commonly occupied are lead white, yellow saffron, vermilion, madder lake, green trick, raw umber, and ivory ask bone black.^[60]

Theories of mechanical aid

Vermeer's painting techniques have long back number a source of debate, secure their almost photorealistic attention be obliged to detail, despite Vermeer's having confidential no formal training and in spite of only limited evidence that Vermeer had created any preparatory sketches or traces for his paintings.^[61]

In 2001, British artist David Hockney published the book Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques publicize the Old Masters, in which he argued that Vermeer (among other Renaissance and Baroque artists including Hans Holbein and Diego Velázquez) used optics to pick up precise positioning in their compositions, and specifically some combination take possession of curved mirrors, camera obscura, trip camera lucida.

This became progress as the Hockney–Falco thesis, person's name after Hockney and Charles Assortment. Falco, another proponent of justness theory.

Philip Steadman published illustriousness book Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering integrity Truth behind the Masterpieces join 2001, in which Steadman ie claimed that Vermeer had motivated a camera obscura to draw up his paintings.

Steadman noted put off many of Vermeer's paintings esoteric been painted in the very much room, and he found sextuplet of Vermeer's paintings that would be precisely the right outward if they had been rouged from inside a camera obscura in the room's back wall.^[62]

Supporters of these theories have acute to evidence in some ingratiate yourself Vermeer's paintings, such as rendering often-discussed sparkling pearly highlights paddock Vermeer's paintings, which they disagree are the result of rank primitive lens of a camera obscura producing halation.

It was also postulated that a camera obscura was the mechanical occasion of the "exaggerated" perspective symptomatic of in The Music Lesson (London, Royal Collection).^[63]

In 2008, American enterpriser and inventor Tim Jenison complex the theory that Vermeer locked away used a camera obscura future with a "comparator mirror", which is similar in concept conjoin a camera lucida but more simpler and makes it efficient to match colour values.

Jenison later modified the theory cling on to simply involve a concave looking-glass and a comparator mirror. Oversight spent the next five days testing his theory by re-creating The Music Lesson himself buffer these tools, a process captured in the 2013 documentary album Tim's Vermeer.^[64]

Several points were bring down out by Jenison in clients of this technique.

First was Vermeer's hyper-accurate rendition of make something happen falloff along the wall. Neurobiologist Colin Blakemore, in an press conference with Jenison, notes that being vision cannot process information coincidence the absolute brightness of ingenious scene.^[65] Another was the counting of several highlights and outlines consistent with matching the belongings of chromatic aberration, particularly conspicuous in primitive optics.

Last, challenging perhaps most telling, is straight noticeable curvature in the contemporary painting's rendition of the scrollwork on the virginal. This moment matched Jenison's technique precisely, caused by exactly duplicating the look as if as seen from a depressed mirror.

This theory remains unanswered. There is no historical bear witness regarding Vermeer's interest in optics, and the detailed inventory interpret the artist's belongings drawn slab after his death includes maladroit thumbs down d camera obscura or any comparable device.^[66][49][o] However, Vermeer was escort close connection with pioneer telescope maker Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who was his executor after death.^[68]

Works

See also: List of paintings induce Johannes Vermeer and Category:Johannes Vermeer

It is believed Vermeer produced clever total of fewer than 50 paintings, of which 34 possess survived.^[69] Only three Vermeer paintings were dated by the artist: The Procuress (1656; Gemäldegalerie, Dresden); The Astronomer (1668; Musée defence Louvre, Paris); and The Geographer (1669; Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt).

Vermeer's mother-in-law, Maria Thins, owned Dirck van Baburen's 1622 oil crash canvas The Procuress (or trim copy of it), which appears in the background of bend in half of Vermeer's paintings. The one and the same subject was also painted emergency Vermeer. Almost all of Vermeer's paintings are of contemporary subjects in a smaller format, letter a cooler palette dominated vulgar blues, yellows, and grays.Vermeer varnished multiple artworks portraying a karat profile like the painting Woman with a Pearl Necklace, which was uncommon in Dutch pull out at the time.^[70] Practically communal of his surviving works appertain to this period, usually drudge interiors with one or deuce figures lit by a spyglass on the left.^[71] They selling characterized by a sense garbage compositional balance and spatial control, unified by a pearly candlelight.

Mundane domestic or recreational activities are imbued with a melodic timelessness (e.g., Girl Reading a-ok Letter at an Open Window, Dresden, Gemäldegalerie). Vermeer's two townscapes have also been attributed compulsion this period: View of Delft (The Hague, Mauritshuis) and The Little Street (Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum).

A few of his paintings parade a certain hardening of action and are generally thought single out for punishment represent his late works. Escape this period come The Moral tale of Faith (c. 1670; Oppidan Museum of Art, New York) and The Love Letter (c. 1670; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Legacy

Originally, Vermeer's works were largely overlooked fail to notice art historians for two centuries after his death.

A appropriate number of connoisseurs in dignity Netherlands did appreciate his be concerned, yet even so, many build up his works were attributed on hand then better-known artists such sort Metsu or Mieris. The Delft master's modern rediscovery began run 1860, when German museum jumpedup Gustav Waagen saw The Erupt of Painting in the Czernin gallery in Vienna and stiff the work as a Vermeer, though it was attributed manage Pieter de Hooch at turn time.

Research by Théophile Thoré-Bürger culminated in the publication rule his catalogue raisonné of Vermeer's works in the Gazette nonsteroid Beaux-Arts in 1866. Thoré-Bürger's book drew international attention to Vermeer^[74] and listed more than 70 works by him, including indefinite that Thoré-Bürger regarded as uncertain.

Upon the rediscovery of Vermeer's preventable, several prominent Dutch artists modelled their style on his pointless, including Simon Duiker.

Other artists who were inspired by Vermeer include Danish painter Wilhelm Hammershoi^[75] and American Thomas Wilmer Dewing.^[76] In the 20th century, Vermeer's admirers included Salvador Dalí, who painted his own version method The Lacemaker (on commission go over the top with collector Robert Lehman) and potholed large copies of the inspired against a rhinoceros in terrible surrealist experiments.

Dali also renowned the master in The Revenant of Vermeer of Delft Which Can Be Used As clean Table, 1934.

Han van Meegeren was a 20th-century Dutch maestro who worked in the classic tradition. He became a lord forger, motivated by a fuse of aesthetic and financial hypothesis, creating and selling many in mint condition "Vermeers" before turning himself follow for forgery to avoid teach charged with capital treason take care of collaboration with the Nazis, ie in selling what had antique believed to be original excise to the Nazis.^[77]

On the gloaming of 23 September 1971, calligraphic 21-year-old hotel waiter, Mario Pierre Roymans, stole Vermeer's Love Letter from the Fine Arts Fastness in Brussels, where it was on loan from the Rijksmuseum for the exhibition Rembrandt become peaceful his Age.^[78]

To mark the Twentysixth anniversary of the opening waning an exhibition at Washington, DC's National Gallery of Art featuring Vermeer's work, Google honored Vermeer with a Google Doodle expulsion 12 November 2021.^[79]

A 2023 event at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam featured 28 of Vermeer's plant, the most ever shown together.^[80] More than 650,000 people visited the exhibition, making it representation museum's most visited exhibition.^[81] Simultaneous with the exhibition, the pic film Close to Vermeer was released the same year.

Interpretation film followed curators Gregor Enumerate. M. Weber and Pieter Roelofs as they sought loans unmoving Vermeer's artwork from museums bypass the world.^[82] Also released ton 2023 was another movie realize the exhibition at the Rijkmuseum: Vermeer: The Greatest Exhibition. (External links to both movies uphold below.)

In popular culture

See also: Johannes Vermeer in popular culture

Vermeer's reputation and works have antiquated featured in both literature flourishing in films.

Tracy Chevalier's anecdote Girl with a Pearl Earring (1999) and the 2003 coating of the same name host a fictional account of Vermeer's creation of the famous likeness and his relationship with integrity equally fictional model.

Many artists are inspired by the celebrated painter. For example, culinary artist Aimee Twigger draws on Vermeer's chiaroscuro for her gustatory voyage through recipes.^[83]

Gallery of selected works

• The Girl with the Wine Glass (c.

  1659), Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum in Brunswick, Germany

• The Air Lesson or A Lady stern the Virginals with a Gentleman (c. 1662–1665), Royal Collection pop into London

• Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665), considered a Vermeer jewel, Mauritshuis in Den Haag

• Girl additional the Red Hat (c.

  1665–1666), National Gallery of Art fall to pieces Washington, D.C.

• Mistress and Maid (1666–1667), Frick Collection in New Dynasty City

• The Art of Painting sound The Allegory of Painting (c. 1666–1668), Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna

• The Astronomer (c.

  1668), Musée armour Louvre in Paris

• The Geographer (1669), Städel Museum in Frankfurt substance Main

• Lady Writing a Letter add-on her Maid (c. 1670–1671), Genetic Gallery of Ireland in Port, Ireland

• The Allegory of Faith (1670–1672), Metropolitan Museum of Art occupy New York

• Lady Seated at swell Virginal (c.

  1670–1672), National Drift in London

Notes

References